PERT – Program Evaluation and Review Technique and CPM (Critical Path Method) are project management tools for scheduling and controlling projects by breaking them into smaller tasks and analysing their dependencies. PERT is used for projects which usually are run with uncertain activity durations. PERT charts are used using a probabilistic model with optimistic, most likely, and doubtful time estimates. CPM is used for projects with known, deterministic durations, focusing on time-cost by balancing  trade-offs to find the critical path. 

Kingfisher Airlines didn’t give importance to PERT charts. The airline’s eventual collapse was ascribed to a lack of proper PERT procedure in terms of delegation, scheduling of flights, food arrangements and other services in flights. Aircraft maintenance, pilot and aircraft staff duties, scheduling of their work, misbehaviour of staff, and a lack of attention from the owner, highlighting fundamental failures in project management that no planning technique could overcome without proper execution and governance.

A study of ten failed PPP highway cases in India cited issues such as unreasonable traffic and revenue estimates, inflexible contracts, unbalanced risk allocation, regulatory hold-ups, and limited oversight. These systemic flaws in planning and risk management directly relate to the potential pitfalls of relying too heavily on initial PERT estimates without continuous monitoring and adjustment. PERT requires regular monitoring. The projects include the Delhi-Mumbai Expressway, Nagpur Metro Rail, Navi Mumbai International Airport, GIFT City, and the development of Multi-Modal Logistics Hubs in Greater Noida. Other examples include the Operation, Management and Development (OMD) of Multimodal Terminal (MMT) at Varanasi, the development of the Indian Institute of Management (IIM) – Udaipur infrastructure, the Redevelopment of Gwalior and Amritsar Railway Stations, and the construction of Eco-Tourism Resorts in the Andaman and Nicobar Islands and Lakshadweep.

PERT requires detailed purpose. Projects with uncertain timeframes, such as research and development, by focusing on minimizing project completion time are dangerous. PERT timeline uses a probabilistic approach with three time estimates for each activity: optimistic, most likely, and pessimistic.  It is concerned primarily with time and risk assessment, allowing for contingency planning.  It is best for projects with a high degree of uncertainty and a non-linear or unpredictable flow of activities.

The Critical Path Method (CPM) is crucial in project management because it helps identify the longest sequence of dependent tasks to determine the minimum project completion time. This allows project managers to effectively prioritize tasks, allocate resources, track progress, and proactively mitigate risks to ensure timely project delivery. By highlighting critical tasks that cannot be delayed, CPM provides a clear roadmap and facilitates better communication, helping to avoid bottlenecks and schedule delays.

The Bullet Train Project (Mumbai-Ahmedabad High-Speed Rail project has been analysed using both CPM and PERT in research papers to examine critical activities, interdependencies, and estimated timelines, demonstrating the application of these tools in large-scale, high-value infrastructure planning. For construction of rail tracks, the general application of CPM and PERT in the construction of railway lines has been studied, showcasing how these techniques help optimize schedules, manage costs, and ensure timely completion of complex track-laying activities.

The purpose of CPM is to manage projects with predictable activity durations and focuses on balancing time and cost. It uses a deterministic approach with a single, fixed time estimate for each activity. CPM focuses and identifies the critical path—the longest sequence of tasks to ensure timely project completion and explores time-cost trade-offs. It is best for projects with well-defined tasks and durations, such as construction and manufacturing.

While working on large infrastructure and construction projects publicly detailed PERT charts are less common in general descriptions, the nature of India’s major infrastructure drives, such as the Bharatmala Pariyojana (a massive national highways program), the Mumbai Trans Harbour Link, and various other large-scale building and engineering projects, necessitates the use of robust project management methodologies like PERT/CPM for effective planning and execution. Software tools like Primavera P6 (commonly used for engineering and construction) are leveraged for such high-budget projects, which inherently integrate PERT-like functionalities for risk and uncertainty visualization.

Conclusion

Both tools of project management PERT and CPM are often used together because they are complementary. They both involve creating a project network diagram to visualize tasks and dependencies. They help project managers break down large projects, determine the critical path, make decisions, coordinate teams, and analyse if the project will be completed within budget.

Job shadowing

Job Shadowing is a kind of on-the-job training for the new employees before they are onboarded in an organization. It allows the new employees to closely observe another senior employee executing the role which they are expected to carry ahead. While observing the senior employee or the trainer the newcomers follow the style, gesture, steps of the trainer precisely; in other words, the newcomers often mimic the senior employee/trainer into a new role.

We usually see a lot of copying in job shadowing. I think nothing wrong with copying, as long as the new employees follow some best practices. And in fact, there are many reasons why new employees should copy. As time passes, the experience leads them to explore and discover their own style.

Job shadowing helps employees understand their role and responsibility better. They get accustomed to the organization’s culture and philosophy well.  It helps giving new employees a deeper look at the company culture and work environment. When they get a closer look at the workplace values, they get adjusted to their roles easily. And, they also feel more motivated at the workplace.  Shadowing is an informal way for someone to learn what it is like to perform a particular job at a workplace. An individual follows people around, or shadows the co-workers already in that role.

Following jobs needs job shadowing intensely:

Restaurant employees

Serving staff, bartenders, cooks, chefs, bus persons, cashiers, hosts.

Medical practitioners

Physiotherapy, occupational therapy, nursing, physicians, radiologists, surgeons, ward boys, ayas.

Manufacturing jobs

Supervisors, quality control, skilled trades employees, machine operators, tool and die makers, machinists.

Administration

Receptionists, administrative assistants, secretaries, clerks.

Skilled Trades

Carpenters, painters, woodworkers, electricians, plumbers, heating and cooling technicians.

Salesforce

Lead manager, sales representatives, relationship manager, sales executives.

Teachers

New recruited teachers, supervisors, junior teachers, departmental heads, research scholars.

shadowing can give an employee valuable exposure to their role without burdening them initially. Comprehensive job shadowing helps new employees to fill skill deficit. It helps in increasing productivity. It moulds future leaders. Identifying high performers and putting them across in leadership pipeline. Whenever a company picks interns, it is usually impossible to accommodate them as they are. Organizations roll-out comprehensive job shadowing programs for the interns. It works fabulously because it helps source the best talent for companies.   

For example, since there are typically many advancement opportunities available in Marriott International, they offer several career and professional development training programs to prepare employees for potential growth opportunities within the company. Some of their programs focus on subjects like leadership, management and developing transferable skill sets. Marriot shows employees how much they care about their health and well-being by offering courses about maintaining a proper work-life balance.

Abbott Phrma believes in onboarding new employees, this company engages them in two to three-year development programs focusing on six different areas, including quality assurance, information technology, finance, engineering, environmental health and manufacturing. Employees can also personalize their own training program by receiving courses and guidance that centre on their interests and the skill sets they would like to develop in their particular field.

Reverse Shadowing

Reverse shadowing is when a trainee interviewer conducts an interview, or a trainee performs solves a difficult/technical problem while an experienced employee observes within the company. Junior member of staff who are vital to the organization share some of their hard-earned experience with peers and managers and leadership positions on how to resolve barriers.

Reverse shadowing helps a lot in managing big projects especially when projects get stuck technically at certain junctures.  The junior staff members pitch their advice on resolving the problems; they usually have better contacts and knowledge because of their continuous working on the project.  In many fields such as medical practice, law and accountancy it has been observed senior practitioners are ready for reverse shadowing.

There are few benefits: for the person who is being shadowed (here the employees at junior level), they get a chance to demonstrate their hard-earned knowledge of the process which helps them in raising their own profile and while making a good contact with senior leaders. It allows them to portray their confidence, communication skills and knowledge.

For the seniors in organization, reverse shadowing helps them to save time and efforts. They get to learn easily how the process works in practice, how to improve the quality of their own work. Also, they gain new useful contacts.  

For example, Flipkart believes in reverse shadowing practice in its unique way. It’s mandatory for all top executives including directors to take customer calls like normal customer representatives. The top executives and senior leaders copy junior staff and compulsorily undertake field trips like a delivery agent. All this to understand customer pulse and operational rigor in business.  At e-pharmacy startup Pharmeasy, leaders have a mandate to spend 3 hours in a week doing something that is non-core to their function.

Both shadowing and reverse shadowing help the people grow in organization. Leaders are becoming mindful of co-existing with the juniors with respect as the business world is constantly changing in diverse ways. Reverse shadow is basically timeless.  It doesn’t matter who guides whom.