Understanding and influencing human behavior is crucial for a variety of reasons, people with whom we work every day, deal on regular basis, for our personal growth and strong relationships for effective teamwork and societal progress. Good behavior fosters positive environments, builds trust, and contributes to a safer and more inclusive society. It also impacts mental and emotional well-being and can influence productivity and success in various aspects of life. 

Personality is fixed and it’s difficult to change, so it makes sense to focus our efforts at the point where changes can be made. Since behaviour is within our condition of control, affirmative feedback on behaviour offers a positive lead for personal development, showing where and how we can adapt to meet the needs of a particular situation or job role. Counselling largely helps to change our behaviour.

Behaviorism is a branch of psychology which primarily studies observable actions and responses, rather than internal mental processes like thoughts or feelings. It suggests that behaviors are learned through two main types of conditioning: classical conditioning which is associating stimuli with responses and modified conditioning  which is learning through consequences of behavior. I list here below few famous theories of behaviourism.

John B. Watson’s classical behaviourism

Watson’s theory focused on observable behavior as the primary subject of psychological study, rejecting introspection and mental processes. He believed that behavior is learned through conditioning and can be manipulated by environmental stimuli, emphasizing the role of external factors over internal ones. His experiment famously known as ‘the little Albert experiment’, conducted by John Watson and Rosalie Rayner in 1920, aimed to demonstrate that fear could be conditioned in humans through classical conditioning. The experiment involved a nine-month-old baby, Albert, who was initially not afraid of a white rat. Researchers repeatedly paired the rat with a loud, startling noise, causing Albert to associate the rat with the noise and eventually fear the rat itself. The white rat was initially a neutral stimulus, meaning Albert didn’t have an innate fear of it. The loud noise was the unconditioned stimulus, which naturally caused fear in a way the unconditioned response in Albert. 

Watson argued that only behaviors that can be observed and measured objectively are valid in scientific psychology. He believed that behaviors are learned through conditioning, where provocations in the environment are paired with responses, leading to learned associations. Watson rejected the study of thoughts, feelings, and other internal mental processes, arguing that they are not directly observable and therefore not suitable for scientific study. Watson emphasized the role of environmental factors in shaping behavior, suggesting that individuals can be trained to exhibit specific behaviors through conditioning. 

B.F. Skinner’s Reinforcement Theory

Skinner’s behaviorism theory, also known as radical behaviorism, suggests that all behavior is learned through interactions with the environment, primarily through reinforcement and punishment. This theory emphasizes observable behaviors and argues that internal mental states like thoughts are not relevant for understanding behavior. Skinner’s work focused on challenging conditioning, where behaviors are modified by their consequences. It is built on the assumption that behaviour is influenced by its consequences. Reinforcement theory is the process of shaping behavior by controlling consequences of the behavior. Reinforcement theory proposes that you can change someone’s behaviour by using reinforcement, punishment, and elimination. I give here example of Abraham Lincoln who was the president of the United States in a pivotal moment during the Civil War. Although he was assassinated before completing his term as president, the relentless work ethic and unmatched communication skills that Abraham Lincoln showcased while healing the fractured country made him one of the greatest leaders in U.S. history.

Pavlov’s theory of Classical Conditioning

This is rooted in the idea that behavior is the result of conditioning. He believed that behavior is learned through the process of classical conditioning, where behavior is shaped through the association of stimuli in the environment. His discoveries provided a framework for understanding how behaviors are acquired. His experiments primarily involved dogs, but the principles he discovered have far-reaching implications for understanding human behaviour as well. Classical conditioning, the foundation of Pavlov’s theory, involves pairing a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus to elicit a conditioned response. In one of his famous experiments, Pavlov observed that dogs naturally salivated when presented with food, an unconditioned stimulus. However, through repeated pairings of a neutral stimulus, such as a bell, with the food, the dogs eventually began to associate the bell with the arrival of food. As a result, they started salivating at the sound of the bell alone, even in the absence of the food. This conditioned response demonstrated the formation of a new association between the neutral stimulus and the unconditioned stimulus. Mental conditioning is a process which depends on experience, it takes efforts of training your mind to modify your thoughts, attitudes, and beliefs to accept thinking patterns.

Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development

This theory proposes that behaviourism develops through eight stages, each marked by a unique milestone, crisis or challenge that individuals must manage through. These crises involve a struggle between opposing forces, such as trust vs. mistrust, autonomy vs. shame and doubt, initiative vs Guilt, Industry vs inferiority , identity vs Role Confusion, intimacy vs Isolation, Generativity vs Stagnation and Ego Integrity vs Despair. When individuals successfully resolve each crisis, it leads to the development of specific virtues and psychological strengths, while failure can result in difficulties in future stages Our early life experience is very important in terms of  how we grow as individuals.  Our identity evolves at various stages of life; how we perceive and present ourselves throughout our lives, as per our own sense of identity; we keep searching and understanding ‘who we are’. Understanding this process can lead people to question their ‘negative’ identity labelled by society. Half of life is spent in making big changes in the way we perceive ourselves.  Our personalities keep changing as we resolve crises in life; thus, each experience brings a change within us.

Thorndike’s theory of connectionism

This theory suggests that learning is the result of forming connections between stimuli and responses. This theory, developed by Edward Lee Thorndike, is a foundation of behaviorism, explaining learning as a “stamping in” or strengthening of S-R bonds. Thorndike’s work also established three key laws of learning: the Law of Readiness, the Law of Exercise, and the Law of Effect. Thorndike’s theory of connectionism, also known as stimulus-response (S-R) theory, suggests that learning involves forming connections or associations between stimuli and responses. These connections, or bonds, are strengthened by satisfying consequences and weakened by unsatisfying ones. Thorndike’s theory is based on his experiments with cats in puzzle boxes, where he observed that learning occurred through trial and error. The key aspects of Thorndike’s connectionism are i) learning occurs through the formation of connections between a stimulus – something that triggers a response and a response  which is a behavior or action. Ii) Learning is a process of trying different responses until the correct one is found and rewarded. Iii) Behaviors followed by satisfying moments are strengthened, while behaviors followed by annoying consequences are weakened. Iv) Frequent practice strengthens connections, while lack of practice weakens them.  V) When an individual is ready to act in a particular way, a response is likely to follow. 

Jerome Bruner’s theory of cognitive development

This theory states that children construct their own learning through organising, categorising and then coding information. He believed that the most effective way to do this is to discover information rather than being told it by a teacher. Jerome Bruner’s theory of cognitive development emphasizes that learning occurs through three modes of representation: enactive, iconic, and symbolic. These modes represent how individuals process and represent knowledge, changing with age with mental and physical development. Bruner believed that children could learn difficult concepts with appropriate instruction, and that learning is a continuous process, not a series of stages. They say children are mirror image of their parents and surrounding. Enactive mode, prevalent in early childhood around 0-3 years, involves learning through direct action and manipulation of objects. For example, a baby might learn about size by comparing different-sized colour crayons. The iconic mode starts around 3-7 years; children begin to use images and mental representations to represent experiences. They might use drawings or pictures to recall events or objects. From about 7 years onward, children develop the ability to use symbols, like language, to represent and organize information. They can understand and use abstract concepts without needing a real visual. Bruner believed that development is a continuous process, not a series of distinct stages. 

Conclusion

In simple terms, Sigmond Freud’s theory suggests that human behavior is influenced by unconscious memories, thoughts, and urges. This theory also proposes that the psyche comprises three aspects: the id, ego, and superego. The id is entirely unconscious, while the ego operates in the conscious mind. Behaviorism is primarily associated with the belief that all behaviors are learned through interactions with the environment. It focuses on observable actions, emphasizing the role of stimuli and responses, and rejects the study of internal mental processes. Key figures in behaviorism include John B. Watson and B.F. Skinner. 

ॐ पूर्णमदः पूर्णमिदं पूर्णात्पुर्णमुदच्यते,
पूर्णस्य पूर्णमादाय पूर्णमेवावशिष्यते ॥
ॐ शान्तिः शान्तिः शान्तिः ॥

This ancient shloka is from the Isha Upanishad which describes the cosmic order of universe. The universal creation is Infinite, boundless yet complete by itself. Every fragment of creation, arising from the whole consideration is completed by itself. There is completeness here. We are a part of that complete energy which is the creation of creator.

The Higher Self is our greatest potential. Once we connect to our Higher Self, we understand more about the world and it is the best thing to happen in our life to fully appreciate the relationships between seemingly unconnected facets of life such as countess happenings in our life, our duties and responsibilities, a particular part of our life which matures us. This leads to a more holistic worldview that can help us find the balance between seemingly incompatible positions in life. The term incompatible with life is used in circumstances of damage such as losing something precious, a person near and dear, an accident which injures some part of body,  or developmental disorder that render life impossible.

When we live in alignment with the inner wisdom of our Higher Selves, we become the best possible version of ourselves. Our Higher Self knows our true purpose and includes our potential to live a fulfilling and joyous life through personal growth and self-awareness.

Inner wisdom is our ‘gut feeling’, it is our intuition and inner guide that we can trust to point us in the right direction. To channel this ability, we must set aside our ego and ideas of how things should be and instead tune into what feels right.

Mindfulness is associated with both a sense of purpose in life and engagement in activities, which are also connected with positive outcomes. Moreover, having purposes in life is linked to higher levels of behavioral foundation.

Om Poornamadah prayer reveals the highest truth of the Universe that “Everything is One We all are One. The whole Creation (air, water, earth, fire, sky) is One. We have come with high Perfection. Everything remains within Perfection. Perfection alone remains forever. So, nothing is separate. We are all like infinite waves of the whole unlimited Ocean of realization. Like a wave, we rise, move forward and merge again in the Ocean of Consciousness which is always Purnam. Many modern Scientists and many modern Mathematicians are fascinated by this Vedic Verse; through this prayer, we remember the ultimate truth of every day, every moment. To merge with the wholeness, we need just 20 minutes of meditation daily.

How to meditate

Choose one corner of your home. Sit comfortably with your eyes closed, simply breathe in while saying “breathe in” in your head as you do. Then breathe out and say, “breathe out”. For the next 20 minutes or so, your aim is to focus on this circular breath and the simple words in your head as much as possible. Let this chosen spot for meditation be the same every day.

Watch your breath

As you begin your meditation, become aware of your own breath, taking deep cleansing breaths. Feel your body from head to toe and scan how each area of your body feels in the present moment. As you inhale, take in your dreams and desires. As you exhale, allow yourself to let go of all the negative energy that takes away from them.

Watch your thoughts

As you meditate, allow all your thoughts to be watched upon. Don’t judge or label any of them. Don’t resist them. Allow them to come and go. All thoughts are okay. Don’t try to control them or achieve anything with them as you meditate. Treat them as data, rather than attaching feelings or meaning to them.  If you find that you are being overwhelmed with thoughts, get up. Walk around your space for thirty seconds and then sit in a new direction. This allows the mind to restart, it also allows your body to be more at ease and for you to go deeper into the space where your source lies. 

Be gentle with yourself

Allow the energy you are drawing to yourself, and your spirit serve you. If it doesn’t, allow yourself to let go of it without blame, ego or judgment. This is a way to be the gatekeeper and give yourself inner guidance to expel fear, doubt and negativity from your body and mind.

Clearing your mind through meditation creates the foundation for manifesting intentions for yourself in the most powerful way in the present moment. It prepares you for moments of divine inspiration, prosperity and abundance that will lead your future self-filled with these gifts. 

Conclusion

I conclude this article stating that Freud’s id, ego, superego play with our higher self; id is the aggressive energy largely held in our unconscious mind, ego is tasked with balancing reality with the demands of desire (id) and morality (superego) ego lies in conscious mind, and super-ego is  The superego is one’s conscience which is established via identification with parental figures or social groups at large. Our Higher Self relates to superego – the wise being within all of us. It is a calm, loving, and spiritual guide that brings our positive characteristics to the surface and tasks us with questioning our lower nature. When we live in alignment with the inner wisdom of our Higher Selves, we become the best possible version of ourselves. Our Higher Self knows our true purpose and encompasses our potential to live a fulfilling and joyous life through personal growth and self-awareness.

Aristotle said, “Knowing yourself is the beginning of all wisdom.” Om Poornamadha, Poornamidam helps us knowing ourselves. I am giving here below a small part of “Aath Prahar” by Pandit Jasraj for your peace.

Abstract

The Neo-Freudian Theory highlights the influence of culture on personality. Cultural norms and values shape our beliefs and attitudes, which, in turn, influences consumer behavior. A product or advertisement that aligns with cultural values is more likely to resonate with consumers.  Consumers’ reaction to the market and products that reflect individual personality. People purchase products that match their traits and tailoring marketing content by studying consumers’ personalities can increases engagement and conversion. It can help build a deeper connection and a better understanding of the target market.

Freud’s theory of id, ego and super-ego

According to Freud, the id is the source of all intuitive/psychic energy, making it the primary component of personality. It’s the fundamental component of personality that is present from the birth of a human. This aspect of personality lies in the entirely unconscious mind.  The unconscious mind is a reservoir of feelings, thoughts, urges, and memories that remain on the outer surface of our conscious awareness.

The conscious mind contains all the thoughts, memories, feelings, and wishes of which we are aware at any given moment; whereas the unconscious mind is a reservoir of feelings, thoughts, urges, and memories that are outside of our conscious awareness. The id is very instinctive in nature and instigates erratic/impulsive behaviours. It is the impulsive part of our mind which responds directly and immediately to basic urges, needs and desires. The personality of the newborn child and toddlers is driven by id.  It is unorganized, demanding, adamant, illogical, moral-less, instinctual, selfish and unconscious. It is driven by the pleasure that strives for instant gratification of all desires, wants, and needs.  Consumers often are driven by id to satisfy their wants and desires. The id drives Conspicuous (which means visible) consumption is the spending of money on luxury goods and services to display financial power to the public. Robust sales of luxury cars and fine art and artifacts have helped push the global luxury goods market higher than €1tn (£700bn), according to a new report, despite slowing demand for personal luxuries such as jewellery and handbags. The annual report from consultancy Bain & Co. Chinese consumers accounts for 31% of global luxury sales, followed by US consumers at 24% and Europeans at 18%.

According to Freud, ego arises and develops from the id and ensures that the impulses of the id can be expressed in a manner acceptable in the real world. Ego eventually emerges to moderate between the urges of the id and the demands of reality. The ego functions in the conscious, preconscious and unconscious mind. The Preconscious is dormant parts of the brain that are readily available to the conscious mind, although not currently in use. An example of preconscious mind is having readily available data in mind for giving clarification of a situation. When we brainstorm in a business meeting, we get the data stored in mind just in on spur of the moment to clarify our point. Freud used this term to make clear that self-consciousness is a part of the unconscious, not all of it, which is to say that the subdued does not comprise the whole unconsciously. The ego is the component of personality that is responsible for dealing with reality. It operates on facts and realism. The reality weighs the costs and benefits of an action before deciding to act upon or discard impulses. Maturated people handle their id impulses to be satisfied through a process of delayed gratification. The basic function of the ego is based on patience.

The last component of personality is the superego. According to Freud, the superego begins to emerge at around age five. The superego holds the internalized moral standards and ethics that we acquire from our parents, teachers and society. Superego gives us a sense of right and wrong. The superego provides guidelines for making judgments. Therefore, it is important to train your children from age 0 to 5 with a proper sense of moral values.

The superego has two parts: the conscious and ego ideal. The conscience superego includes information about behaviours that are viewed as bad by parents and society which are often forbidden and lead to bad consequences, punishments, or feelings of guilt and remorse. The ego ideal includes the rules and standards for behaviours that the ego aspires to achieve; for example, acquiring higher educational degrees, acquire special skills in life, mastering an art etc. 

Neo-Freudian theory

Neo-Freudian psychologists were thinkers who agreed with many of the fundamental beliefs of Sigmund Freud but changed and adapted the approach to incorporate their own beliefs, ideas, and opinions. Psychologist Sigmund Freud proposed many ideas that were highly controversial, but he also attracted several followers.

Many of these thinkers agreed with Freud’s concept of the unconscious mind and the importance of early childhood in personality development of people. There were, however, a few points that other scholars disagreed with or directly rejected. Because of this, these individuals went on to suggest their own unique theories of personality and cognition. The neo-Freudians, generally agreed with Freud that childhood experiences matter, but de-emphasized sex, focusing more on the social environment and effects of culture on personality.  From beginning man has assumed that woman’s nature is more complex and foreign to the nature of man.

Neo-Freudian Disagreements

There are a few different reasons why these Neo-Freudian thinkers disagreed with Freud. For example, Erik Erikson believed that Freud was incorrect to think that personality was shaped almost entirely by childhood events. Other issues that motivated Neo-Freudian thinkers included: Freud’s importance on sexual urges as a primary motivator, Freud’s lack of emphasis on social and cultural influences on behavior and personality, and Freud’s negative view of human nature.  The neo-Freudians felt that Freud’s theories focus too heavily on psychopathology, sex, and childhood experiences. Instead, many chose to focus their theories on more positive aspects of human nature and the social influences that contribute to personality and behavior. Though neo-Freudians were influenced by Freud, but they developed their own unique theories and perspectives on human development, personality, and behavior.

Major Neo-Freudian Thinker Carl Jung and Analytical Psychology

Carl Jung and Freud once had a close friendship, but Jung broke away to form his own ideas.  Freud once viewed Jung as his protege, but their disagreements eventually led to the breakdown of their friendship and professional relationship. Jung referred to his theory of personality as analytical psychology and introduced the concept of the collective unconscious. He described this as a universal structure shared by all members of the same species, containing all the instincts and archetypes that influence human behavior.

Jung still placed great emphasis on the unconscious, but his theory placed a higher focus on his concept of the collective unconscious rather than the personal unconscious. Like many other neo-Freudians, Jung also focused less on sex than Freud did in his work.

Carl Jung was a Swiss psychiatrist and founder of the school of analytical psychology. He proposed and developed the concepts of the extroverted and introverted personality, archetypes, and the collective unconscious. The issues that he dealt with occurred from his personal experiences. For many years Jung felt as if he had two separate personalities. One introverted and other extroverted. This interplay resulted in his study of integration and wholeness. Jung’s perspective on personality is quite insightful; he wrote that what appears to be random behavior is the result of differences in the way people prefer to use their mental capacities.

Introverts are known for having fewer connections in their life, but these connections are usually much deeper. Extroverts think as they talk or let’s say that talk as they think.  The process for introverts is much different and it’s so internal that you can’t make out outwardly that anything is happening. An introvert could be sitting in corner thinking about the meaning of life or could be solving some grave problem of his organization. Just because they are not more vocal about everything does not mean they are not passionate about life. Introverts feel things just as deeply as extroverts; the difference is that they are simply not very effusive about it.  Perhaps their thinking process does not frequently involve others.

It is known that introverts are quieter and tend to feel more energized from spending time alone, while extroverts are louder and gain fortification and energy from being around with others. Extroverts often exhibit qualities of charm, magnetism, and affiliation, while introverts tend to be creative and prefer to work alone. But it’s not always black and white: we all coexist on this planet – introverts and extroverts need to work together manifesting qualities of each depending on the circumstance. And being an introvert doesn’t mean being a recluse: introverts can often be amiable social butterflies in their own quiet way.

Alfred Adler and Individual Psychology

Adler was one of the early members of Freud’s psychoanalytic discussion group that met each week in Freud’s home. He played an essential role in establishing psychoanalysis but eventually broke away from Freud’s ideas. Adler believed that Freud’s theories focused too heavily on sex as the primary motivator for human behavior. Instead, Adler placed a lesser emphasis on the role of the unconscious and a greater focus on interpersonal and social influences. His approach, known as individual psychology, was centred on the drive that all people must compensate for their feelings of inferiority. The inferiority complex, he suggested, was a person’s feelings and doubts that they do not measure up to other people or to society’s expectations.

Alfred Adler created Personality Theory which he called Individual Psychology because he believed that people are unique, and each one requires a different treatment. Adler initially followed Sigmund Freud’s teachings, but he disconnected after a disagreement. Freud’s theory says that human behaviour is driven by sex. Adler’s Personality Theory says that the base of human behaviour is to overcome the feelings of inferiority. This is the fundamental difference between Freud’s and Adler’s theories. Adlerian therapy is a short-term, goal-oriented, and positive psychodynamic therapy based on the theories of Alfred Adler. Adler focused a good deal of his research on feelings of inferiority versus superiority in people; besides the number of obstacles, one faces in life. He also observed that each one craves for a sense of belonging in one’s own community and society.  According to Adler, feelings of inferiority can result in irrational behaviour. But, in the right setting, an individual can be motivated to strive for greater success. Adlerian therapy focuses on how individual personality is interconnected with society at large.

Usefulness of the theory: Adlerian therapy is useful in any type of psychological disorder or mental illness. Adlerian therapy may be used in combination with other therapeutic approaches such as insightful counselling, music therapy or art therapy as it best suits the needs of the individuals involved. An Adlerian approach can be employed with children, adolescents, adults, individuals, couples, families and business organizations. Especially for understanding consumer behaviour.

Erik Erikson and Psychosocial Development

While Freud believed that personality was mostly set in stone during early childhood, Erikson felt that development continued throughout life. He also believed that not all conflicts were unconscious. He thought many were conscious and resulted from the developmental process itself. Erikson de-emphasized the role of sex as a motivator for behavior and instead placed a much stronger focus on the role of social relationships. His eight-stage theory of psychosocial development concentrates on a series of developmental conflicts that occur throughout the lifespan, from birth until death. At each stage, people face a crisis that must be resolved to develop certain psychological strengths.

Erickson’s eight stages of psychosocial development:

1. Trust vs Mistrust 0-18 months: This is the first stage of human development. The child builds trust in this stage. Infants develop based upon the quality their caregivers give them to meet their basic needs. If these needs are not consistently met, they develop suspicion, distrust, and anxiety. The basic virtue in this stage is hope. According to Erikson, the trust versus mistrust stage is the most important period in a person’s life because it shapes a child’s views of the world perpetually.

2. Autonomy vs Shame 18 months –3 years: Autonomy versus shame is the second stage of Erik Erikson’s stages of psychosocial development. This stage takes place between the ages of 18 months to around age to 3 years. According to Erikson, children at this stage are focused on developing a greater sense of self-control. The child in this stage tries to become self-reliant. The basic virtue in this stage is will. In this stage a child develops a sense of personal identity which continues to influence his/her ego identity and development for the rest of life.

3. Initiative vs Guilt 3 – 5 years: During the initiative versus guilt stage, children begin to assert their power and control over the world expressing it in their play and other social interaction. The basic virtue in this step is purpose. They start exploring lot of things. During this stage, it is important for caregivers to encourage their exploration and to help children make appropriate choices. Caregivers who discourage or act unresponsive may cause children to feel ashamed of themselves and this may affect them in overly depending upon the help of others.

4. Industry vs inferiority 5-12 years: This stage occurs during childhood between the ages of five and twelve. The virtue in this stage is competence. Children at this stage learn to read and write, do homework, to do sums, to do things on their own. School and social interaction play an important role during this time of a child’s life. A child’s social world expands considerably as they enter school and gain new friendships with peers. Through social interactions, children begin to develop a sense of pride in their accomplishments and abilities.

5. Identity vs Role Confusion 12-18 years:  During this stage of adolescence children explore their independence and develop a sense of self. In this stage success leads to an ability to stay true to oneself, while failure leads to confusion and a weak self-image. Children who don’t have a strong sense of their own identity can easily get influenced by others. This stage is crucial because if the children get wrongly influenced, they get into drug addiction, gambling and other dire habits.  The virtue in this stage is fidelity.

6. Intimacy vs Isolation 18-40 years: The major concern which arises in minds of humans at this stage is of love and intimacy in relationships with other people. Isolation occurs when a person fails to find a partner and fulfil the urge of sexual intimacy. If they don’t find a partner, they feel lonely and inferior. The basic virtue at this stage is love.

7. Generativity vs Stagnation 40-65 years: This is the seventh of stage of Erik Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development. This stage occurs during middle adulthood. The term generativity was coined by Erikson which refers to establishing an ethnicity/a culture/ a base which will guide the next generation. Generativity also refers to “making your mark” on the world through creating or nurturing things that will outlast an individual. A generative person instigates a change. The virtue in stage is care.

8. Ego Integrity vs Despair 65 onwards years: Erikson identified that at this stage a person faces internal conflict which involves reflecting on one’s life and feeling either satisfied and happy with one’s life or feeling of deep sense of regret. Basic virtue in this stage is wisdom.

Karen Horney and Feminine Psychology: Karen was a German psychoanalyst who practised in the United States during her later career. Her theories questioned some traditional Freudian views. This was particularly true of her theories of sexuality and of the instinct orientation of psychoanalysis. She is credited with founding feminist psychology in response to Freud’s theory of penis envy. She disagreed with Freud about inherent differences in the psychology of men and women, and she traced such differences to society and culture rather than biology. She is often classified as Neo-Freudian.

Karen Horney was also one of the first to criticize Freud’s depictions of women as inferior to men. Horney objected to Freud’s portrayal of women as suffering from “penis envy.” Instead, she suggested that men experience “womb envy” because they are unable to bear children. Her theory focuses on how behavior was influenced by several different neurotic needs.

She asserted that male realities cannot describe female psychology or define women’s gender by virtue of the lack of experiences of voices from girls and women. As a woman, she felt that the charting out of trends in female behaviour was a neglected issue. Women were regarded as objects of charm and beauty which clashed with every human being’s ultimate purpose of self-actualization.

Women, according to Horney, traditionally gain value only through their children and the wider family. She de-romanticized the Victorian concept of how a marriage bond should be. Horney explained that the “monogamous demand represents the fulfilment of narcissistic and sadistic impulses far more than it indicates the wishes of genuine love”. Most notably, her work “The Problem of the Monogamous Ideal” was fixed upon marriage. Her essay “Maternal Conflicts” attempted to shed new light on the problems women experience when raising adolescents.

Horney believed that both men and women have a drive to be ingenious and productive. Women can satisfy this need normally and internally; to do this they become pregnant and give birth. Men satisfy this need only through external ways; Horney proposed that the striking accomplishments of men in work or some other field can be viewed as compensation for their inability to give birth to children.

Contributions of the Neo-Freudians to the field of psychology and buyer behaviour

While the neo-Freudians made important contributions in shaping the field of psychology, their theories were also the subject of criticism. They took a highly philosophical approach and lacked empirical, scientific support. Jung’s theories, for example, were primarily rooted in his observations of dreams, mythology, and legends. Erikson’s work, for example, influenced the field of developmental psychology with its emphasis on how social and cultural factors impact human development throughout the entire lifespan. Adler and the other neo-Freudians’ also influenced the work of psychologist Abraham Maslow, who developed an influential hierarchy of needs to explain human motivation. Karen Horney disagreed with Freud about inherent differences in the psychology of men and women, and she traced such differences to society and culture rather than biology.

Effects of neo-Freudian Theories in Buyer Behaviour

1. Women spend a lot of time trying to find the perfect solution. Men, however, pick the first product that just works for them. Women tend to be more astute consumers than men because they are willing to invest time and energy necessary to research and compare products.
2. Neo-Freudian theory help predict consumer behavior by analysing neural responses to marketing messages. This can help marketers anticipate how consumers will respond to different marketing strategies and adjust their campaigns accordingly.
3. It provides insights into the subconscious and emotional responses of consumers to marketing messages. This can help marketers understand consumer behavior better and design more effective marketing campaigns.
4. Improving product design: It also helps improve product design by analysing consumer responses to different product features. This can help marketers create products that are more appealing to consumers.
5. Testing packaging: Neuromarketing can help test different packaging designs to see which ones are more likely to catch the attention of consumers and influence their buying decisions.
6. At different stages of life consumers demand products that suits their needs. A customer lifecycle describes a buyer’s progression through the different stages of purchasing a product or service. The stages of the lifecycle are reach, acquisition, conversion, retention and loyalty. This concept applies to sales, marketing and customer service professionals, as it helps them understand where a customer is in their purchase journey.
7. Understanding the customer purchase journey is important because it directly contributes to the growth and revenue of a company. It helps the marketers to understand where a customer is in the purchasing process.
8. Awareness of this consumer lifecycle helps marketers to communicate effectively with customers at any stage of the lifecycle.

Happiness or true happiness is an inner quality. Some people are happy all through; for them it is a state of mind. If your mind is at peace, you are happy. Even if you have everything in world, you may not be necessarily happy. You might have the possession, power, money, name and fame, but still you might not be happy. Happiness is used in the context of mental, emotional, contentment, joy, satisfaction and wellbeing. We don’t bother of the definition or the description of happiness, we simply feel it.

The Greek Philosopher Aristotle (394-322 B.C.) observed that no person intentionally chooses to be unhappy. Then why human beings go in search of happiness? Why aren’t they always in the state of happiness? More than anybody else, Aristotle defined happiness as a central purpose of human life and a goal in itself. Aristotle is one of the greatest thinkers in the history of western science and philosophy. He made contributions to logic, metaphysics, mathematics, physics, biology, botany, ethics, politics, agriculture, medicine, dance and theatre. He was a student of Plato.

The Greek word that usually gets translated as “happiness” is eudaimonia, and like most translations from ancient languages, this can be confusing. The main trouble is that happiness is often conceived of as a subjective state of mind. For Aristotle, however, happiness is a final end or goal that includes the totality of one’s life. He had described happiness in four levels. The names are in Latin.

I have connected the four levels of happiness described by Aristotle with Sigmund Freud’s model of the human psyche, the id, ego and super ego. Human psyche is structured into these three parts; they all develop at different stages in our lives. These are organisms, not parts of the brain, or in any way physical.

The Id is the set of uncoordinated instinctual trend; the super-ego plays the critical and moralizing role; and the ego is the organized, realistic part that mediates between the desires of the id and the super-ego.

Happiness level 1: Laetus (immediate happiness gained from material objects) Laetus Happiness is short lived; it is simply about sensual gratification based on things. It is external in nature. For example you feel like eating ice-cream, you had it and the happiness is gone. This happiness has limitations. It is all about instant gratification. You buy a new car, you are happy for few days roaming in the car, showing it off to the world. You go for travel, eat a nice meal, go to an exotic restaurant, and wear anew dress, a new watch. It satisfies your instinctual drive. You want something and had it. It satisfies your id. The id is the disorganized part of the personality structure that contains a human’s basic, instinctual drives. The id is the only component of personality that is present from birth. It is the source of a person’s bodily needs, wants, desires, and impulses

Happiness level 2: Felix (ego gratification, achievements) This happiness comes from comparison: being better, looking superior to others, to be more admired than others etc. You experience this type of happiness when you score the highest marks, when you get an award, a medal, when you get promoted in job, when you marry the most sought after person. Everyone likes admiration and winning. It depends how much winning strength a person has. For some people it is everything, for others it’s just a very minor and very short lived pleasure.

Happiness from continuous comparison with other people is wobbly because very few people can win in all domains of life all the time. In case of failure, focusing too much on this level can lead to frustrations and a sense of irrelevance. Excessive focus on comparison and self-promotion is risky setting against the people around you and can lead to self-absorption, jealousy, pessimism, and the oppression of others.

This happiness level is linked to ego. Ego is the organized part of the personality structure that includes defensive, perceptual, intellectual-cognitive, and executive functions. Conscious awareness resides in the ego, although not all of the operations of the ego are conscious.

Happiness level 3: Beatitudo (contributive): This happiness comes from doing well for others and making the world a better place. This level of happiness is based on the human desire to connect with others with kindness, to help others in their difficult times. This happiness comes out of compassion, friendship, unity, togetherness and love. As this level we move away from ourselves to focus on the well-being of others. In quintessence our own happiness depends also on the happiness of others.

This happiness relates to super-ego which always aims for perfection. It plays the moralizing role in our lives. The super-ego balances good and bad in our life. It does not allow us to do bad work, but allows doing well. Super ego guides individual’s ego-ideals and spiritual goals. It drives our conscience; it criticizes and prohibits our drives such as fantasies, feelings, and actions. The Super-ego punishes misbehavior with feelings of guilt.

Happiness level 4: Sublime Beatitudo (enduring, eternal): This is the ultimate happiness, it is perfect happiness. This happiness is the most difficult to describe. It involves a search for completeness and fulfillment. It has to do with finding the right balance between the other levels of happiness i.e level one, two and three. Psychologists have labeled this desire for ultimate happiness a call for connection to the larger universe. This happiness is philosophical in nature. It has a lot to do with individual perspective. It is transcendent. When we realize that we cannot be in control of everything, when we realize that some things must be allowed to let go of, and that some things will be taken care by the universal energy.  We start looking for the beauty, truth, goodness, and love in nature, around us in small things.

Some fulfill this desire through spirituality or religion, others through philosophy, art, or scientific endeavors to find answers to some of the big questions of life, human existence and the universe. The fact is there is no ultimate or universal answer. This happiness is also connected it with super-ego.

To get the ultimate happiness you have to find your own calling!