Trait theory in psychology rests on the idea that people differ from one another based on the strength and intensity of basic trait dimensions. They purchase goods and services based on their peculiarity. The theory also suggests that people have certain basic traits, and it is the strength and intensity of those traits that account for personality differences. The trait approach to personality is one of the major theoretical areas in the study of personality. Trait theory suggests that individual personalities are composed of broad characters. Personality refers to the permanent characteristics and behavior that comprise a person’s way of adjustment to life, his interests, desires, beliefs, what he/she thinks of self, hobbies, interests, values, abilities and emotions.

A trait is a distinguishing quality of a person. For example, someone is inquisitive that seems to be his notable trait. A trait is usually consistent.

There are four trait theories of personality: Allport’s trait theory, Cattell’s 16-factor personality model, Eysenck’s three-dimensional model, and the five-factor model of personality.

Allport

Gordon Allport was one of the first researchers who introduced a trait theory. His main idea was that personality came about like a sequences of building blocks; the building blocks of a personality refer to the fundamental components that contribute to shaping an individual’s distinct traits and behavior. He further believed that personality was biologically determined but could be shaped by someone’s environment. Although there is definite evidence for the fact that our personalities are, at least in part, determined by genetics, there’s more to it than that. In fact, our environment may shape or alter our personalities as well – not just the social environment but the natural environment around us. For example, people living in mountainous areas are emotionally stable and assertive, which may also likely be beneficial for their secluded lifestyles.

Allport said that there are three classes of trait as following:

Cardinal traits

these are the traits around which someone organises their whole life. They are thought to develop later in life and become synonymous with a person because that is how people primarily see them.  For example, Dr APJ Abdul Kalam was characterized by his vision and humility. He believed that leaders should lead by example and inspire their team members to achieve their full potential. Narendra Modi – our PM is decisive but autocratic. Steve Jobs was known for his attention to details. 

Central traits

These refer to major characteristics of someone’s personality and lead to its foundation, such as shy, intelligent, deceitful, unkind.

Secondary traits

These refer to traits which refer to patterns of behaviour that only occur under specific circumstances, for example a person who is usually confident becomes nervous when they must talk in public, another example is some people fear height.

Cattell’s 16-Factor Personality Model

Raymond Cattle reduced the number of main personality traits from Allport’s initial list of over 4,000 down to 171. He did so, mainly by removing uncommon traits and combining common characteristics. Next, Cattell rated a large sample of individuals for these 171 different traits. Using a statistical technique known as factor analysis, he then identified closely related terms and eventually reduced his list to 16 key personality traits. Among them are dominance, perfectionism, reasoning, and self-reliance. They are as follows:

1. Abstractedness: Imaginative versus practical
2. Apprehension: Worried versus confident
3. Dominance: Forceful versus submissive
4. Emotional stability: Calm versus high-strung
5. Liveliness: Spontaneous versus restrained
6. Openness to change: Flexible versus attached to the familiar
7. Perfectionism: Controlled versus undisciplined
8. Privateness: Discreet versus open
9. Reasoning: Abstract versus concrete
10. Rule-consciousness: Conforming versus non-conforming
11. Self-reliance: Self-sufficient versus dependent
12. Sensitivity: Tender-hearted versus tough-minded
13. Social boldness: Uninhibited versus shy
14. Tension: Inpatient versus relaxed
15. Vigilance: Suspicious versus trusting
16. Warmth: Outgoing versus reserved

Eysenck’s 3 Dimensions of Personality

British psychologist Hans Eysenck developed a model of personality based on just three universal traits.

Introverts/Extroverts: Introverts direct attention to their feelings and experiences, while extroverts’ direct attention outward, onto other people and the environment. A person high in introversion might be quiet and reserved, while an individual high in extraversion might be sociable and outgoing.

Neuroticism/Emotional Stability: This dimension of Eysenck’s trait theory is related to moodiness versus even-temperedness. Neuroticism refers to an individual’s tendency to become upset or emotional, while stability refers to the tendency to remain emotionally constant.

Psychoticism: Later, after studying individuals suffering from mental illness, Eysenck added a personality dimension he called psychoticism to his trait theory. Individuals who are high on this trait tend to have difficulty dealing with reality and they tend to be antisocial, hostile, non-empathetic, and manipulative People who have psychotic episodes are often unaware that their misbeliefs or hallucinations are not real, which may lead them to feel frightened or distressed.

Five-Factor Model of Personality

Both Cattell’s and Eysenck’s theories have been the subject of considerable research. This led to some theorists to believe that Cattell focused on too many traits, while Eysenck focused on too few. As a result, a new trait theory often referred to as the “Big Five” theory emerged. Many contemporary personality psychologists believe that there are five basic dimensions of personality, often referred to as the “Big 5” personality traits. The Big 5 personality traits are extroversion, agreeableness, openness, conscientiousness, and neuroticism.

This five-factor model of personality represents five core traits that interact to form human personality. While researchers often disagree about the exact labels for each dimension, which are described most.

1. Agreeableness:  level of cooperation and caring for others
2. Conscientiousness: level of thoughtfulness and structure
3. Extraversion: level of socialness which means seeking and enjoying companionship of others and emotional expressiveness.
4. Neuroticism: is a trait that reflects a person’s level of emotional stability. It is often defined as a negative personality trait involving negative emotions, poor self-regulation; an inability to manage urges, trouble dealing with stress, a strong reaction to perceived threats, and the tendency to complain.
5. Openness: means openness to experience, ready to experience new things in life, ready to accept and experience as things come in life, it is one of basic personality trait denoting receptivity to new ideas and new experiences, level of adventure and creativity.

Conclusion

The Big Five Personality Model explains how employees’ behavioral traits can be segmented into certain personalities. An easy way to remember the five traits is to think of the acronym OCEAN. This stands for openness to experience, conscientiousness, extraversion, agreeableness and neuroticism.

DISC (Dominance, Influence, Conscientiousness, and Steadiness) is a behaviour assessment tool created by psychologist William Moulton Marston. The assessment centres on four different behavioural traits: dominance, influence, submission, and compliance. This theory was then developed into a behavioural assessment tool by industrial psychologist Walter Vernon Clarke. The creator of this instrument Marston was a lawyer and a psychologist; he also contributed to the first polygraph test (lie detector). Marston authored self-help books and created the character Wonder Woman (a comic character of super heroine).

His major contribution to psychology came when he generated the DISC characteristics of emotions and behaviour of normal people. Marston, after conducting research on human emotions, he published his findings in his 1928 book called Emotions of Normal People in which he explained that people illustrate their emotions using four behaviour types: Dominance (D), Inducement (I), Submission (S), and Compliance (C). Also, he argued that these behavioural types came from people’s sense of self and their interaction with the environment. He included two dimensions that influence people’s emotional behaviour. The first dimension is whether a person views his environment as favourable or unfavourable. The second dimension is whether a person perceives himself as having control or lack of control over his environment. His work was the foundation of the DISC assessment that has been used by more than 50 million people since it was first introduced in 1972.

In 1956, Walter Clarke, an industrial psychologist, constructed the DISC assessment using Marston’s theory of the DISC model. He did this by publishing the Activity Vector Analysis, a checklist of adjectives on which he asked people to indicate descriptions that were accurate about themselves. This assessment was intended for use in businesses needing assistance in choosing qualified employees. About 10 years later, Walter Clarke Associates developed a new version of this instrument for John Cleaver (fantasy character of serial killer created by Dan Wells). It was called Self Description. Instead of using a checklist, this test forced respondents to make a choice between two or more terms. Factor analysis of this assessment added to the support of a DISC-based instrument.

The DiSC profile is a non-judgemental tool used for conversation of people’s behavioural differences. If you participate in a DiSC program, you’ll be asked to complete a series of questions that produce a detailed report about your personality and behaviour.
The DiSC tool provides a common language that people can use to better understand themselves and adapt their behaviours with others – within a work team, a sales relationship, a leadership position, or other relationships. DiSC profiles help you and your team members.

Dominance: People with streak of dominance stress on accomplishing results and goals. They see big picture, they are usually blunt – they talk out their feelings easily, they are always ready to accept challenges, and without much ado they get straight to the point.
People with the D style place an emphasis on shaping the environment by overcoming opposition to accomplish results.

A person with a D style is motivated by winning, competition and success. He prioritizes accepting challenge, taking action and achieving immediate results. He is described as direct, demanding, and forceful, strong willed, driven, and determined, fast-paced, and self-confident etc, etc. At times, he may be limited by lack of concern for others, impatience and open scepticism. He often fears being seen as vulnerable or being taken advantage of. His goals are unique accomplishments, he sees new opportunities, and he tends to control the audience. He requires independence to expend work environment.  When communicating with the D style individuals, give them the bottom line, be brief, focus your discussion narrowly, avoid making generalizations, refrain from repeating yourself, and focus on solutions rather than problems.

Leadership style of D personality: Commanding, Resolute, Pioneering.

Influence: People who are influencers place emphasis on influencing or persuading others in work place or in relationship. They are enthusiasts, optimistic, and they like to collaborate. They dislike being ignored. A person with i style may be limited by being impulsive and confused. He may lack follow-ups but he is convincing, magnetic, enthusiastic, warm, trusting and optimistic. He prioritizes taking action, collaboration, and expressing enthusiasm. He is motivated by social recognition, group activities, and relationships. He may fear loss of influence, disapproval and being ignored. He values coaching and counselling. He enjoys freedom of expression and democratic relationships. He also speaks directly and candidly.

When communicating with the i  style individual, share your experiences, allow the i style person time to ask questions and talk themselves, focus on the positives, avoid overloading them with details, and don’t interrupt them.

Leadership style of i personality: Energizing, Pioneering, and Affirming.

Steadiness: Person with S style places emphasis on cooperation, sincerity, dependability. He doesn’t like to be rushed into doing anything. He comes across as a calm person. He is supportive in nature. People with the S style place an emphasis on cooperating with others within existing circumstances to carry out the task. A person with an S style is motivated by cooperation, opportunities to help and sincere appreciation. He prioritizes giving support, collaborating and maintaining stability. He comes across as a calm man who is predictable and stable. He is consistent in nature. His limitations are indecisiveness, overly accommodating and tendency to avoid change. He fears change, loss of stability and offending others. But, he values loyalty, helping others and security.

His personal goals are personal accomplishments, group acceptance, power through formal roles and positions of authority and he prefers maintenance of status quo and controlled environment.

When communicating with the S style individuals, be personal and friendly, express your interest in them and what you expect from them, take time to provide clarification, be polite, and avoid being aggressive, or rude.

Leadership Style of S Personality: Inclusive, Humble, Affirming.

Conscientiousness: People with streak of conscientiousness place emphasis on quality and accuracy, expertise, competency. They enjoy independence. They are clear in their objectives and they have clear reasons for all their actions.
They have an eye for details and they fear being wrong. People with the C style place an emphasis on working conscientiously within existing circumstances to ensure quality and accuracy.  A person with a C style is motivated by opportunities to gain knowledge, showing their expertise, and quality work. They prioritize ensuring accuracy, maintaining stability, and challenging assumptions. They can be described as careful, cautious, systematic, diplomatic, accurate and tactful. C style people can be limited by being overcritical, overanalyzing and isolating themselves. They fear criticism and committing mistakes. The C style people value quality and accuracy

Leadership Style of C personality: Deliberateness, Humble, Resolute.

Conclusion: Many studies have shown that careful analyses of personality throughout life reveal a core of traits that remain remarkably stable over the years and a number of other traits that can change drastically from age to age and situation to situation. One of the new studies has shown that three basic aspects of personality change little throughout life: a person’s anxiety level, friendliness and eagerness for novel experiences. But other traits, such as isolation, morale and feelings of satisfaction, can vary greatly as a person goes through life. These more changeable traits largely reflect such things as how a person sees himself and his life at a given point, rather than a basic underlying temperament.

The DiSC personality assessment shows blend of characteristics of personality in different situations and different roles in life. We cannot be the same everywhere; in place of work we are different than when we are at home.

Real intelligence is to recognise what roles you play in life and to make conscious efforts to play them with requiring traits to play them well. For example, at work place you might be a conscientious worker but while playing with your child the role demands to be an influencer. So, set times for changing between the various roles and this requires
a keen effort.